Language Conflicts And Subordination In India

Language Conflicts And Subordination In India Language is a vehicle of thought and a means of communication. When a population is linguistically homogeneous, language may contribute to the unity and the political stability of a state. When on the other hand, a country contains sizable minorities speaking different languages may arise serious challenges to the established state. Under latter conditions, conflict over issues like governments language policy, may give rise to the outbreak of political violence. India has a diversity of language and governments attempts to solve language problem was created the conflicts. Language is undoubtedly the most single possession of human race. Man is clearly distinguished from other specious by his capacity for using language. The term language is derived from the Latin word lingua meaning tongue. Historians of language consider speech as primary and writing as secondary. Dr.K.T.Khader brings some of the definitions of language which are in currently popular linguistic circles that is Ronald Wardhaughs definition language as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communications.; Noam Chomskys definition Language is a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. ; and the Encyclopedia Britannicas definition, language as a system of conventional, spoken or written symbols by means of which human beings, as members of a social group and participant in its culture, communicate. On the basis of these definitions we can say language is communication and making of meaning through written symbols, spoken word and visual imagery.  [1]   According to David Crystal, one of the foremost authorities on language is the primary out ward sign of a groups identity. Language becomes an indicator of a communitys cultural ethos.  [2]  Language is also the most widely encountered symbol of emerging nationhood. Linguistic identity on the past as well as today continues to play a significant role in defining political and state identity as well as geographical boundaries. The boundaries of nation-states as well as states within countries are often defined on the basis of linguistic identity. The linguistic division of states in India after independence is the best instance for this. Political incompetence and lack of well-considered and long term policies with regard to language and script have caused a great deal of problems in whole over India.  [3]  Crystal says people who no longer speak the language, or who have never spoken it, are excluded from the culture, even if on other grounds they believe themselves to be par t of it.  [4]  This position is more likely to be espoused by people who do speak the indigenous language. Language can be used to affirm social solidarity among those who use it. According to Mikhail Bakthin, a scholar mainly worked on philosophy of language, language is a social phenomenon, is a verbal-ideological world comprised of centripetal and centrifugal forces.  [5]  Centripetal forces result in a unitary language which Bakhtin elaborates to be a system of linguistic norms which are not only grammatical rules but also ideologically saturated with a world view; such a language creates within a heteroglot  [6]  national language the firm, stable nucleus of an officially recognized language.  [7]  Every individual or collective utterance participates in the unitary language (in its centripetal, unifying forces) and partakes of social/historical heteroglossia (centrifugal, stratifying forces).  [8]  The living, shaping environment of any utterance is dialogized heteroglossia, anonymous and social, as well as concrete and specific as individual utterance. This stratification and heteroglossia widen and deepen as long as language is alive an d developing.  [9]   Bakthin observes that when any word is used to express an idea or describe an object, it encounters other words about the same idea or object, which then becomes overlain with heteroglot social opinion, charged with value, and open to dispute. In this dialogic interaction with this tension-filled environment, the word gets into complex interrelationships with other words, merges with some, and recoils from others. The word and utterance in any language shape themselves in this dialogic process. In colonial and postcolonial India, English words and phrases became part of other Indian languages precisely through this dialogic interaction. Nandita Ghosh observes this Bakhtinian process of hybridity is also filled with violence and displacements between languages, causing misgivings.  [10]   India is the home of many languages. The languages of India are divided into two large groups, the Indo-Aryan languages and the Dravidian languages, with a smaller number of languages belonging to unrelated phyla such as Tibeto-Burman. Linguistic records begin with the appearance of the BrÄ hmÄ « script from about the 6th century BC.The languages of India belong to several language families, the major ones being the Indo-Aryan languages (spoken by 72% of Indians) and the Dravidian languages (spoken by 25% of Indians). Other languages spoken in India belong to the Austro-Asiatic, Tibeto-Burman, and a few minor language families and isolates.  [11]   The Three-language formula is a formula of language learning formulated by the Union Education Ministry of the Government of India in consultation with the states. The formula was pronounced in the 1968 National Policy Resolution This formula directed that those in educational institutions, media, industry, and administration learn English and Hindi as the two official languages, and it also provided for the optional learning of Sanskrit, Urdu, or another regional language. This formula was still unsatisfactory because regional communities perceived their language to be in third place to English and Hindi in importance and market value. Nehru was unable to retain Hindi as the only official language as per the Official Languages Act in 1963; he had to amend it in 1967 to retain English as the associate official language. He also linguistically reorganized states and discouraged any demand for special languages unless these had popular support.  [12]  Nehrus policies proved to be u npopular. Language riots broke out in Madras in 1950 and in Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka, and Punjab through the 60s and 70s, which partly fueled the rise of militant separatist movements in the 1980s. The Anti-Hindi agitations of Tamil Nadu were a series of agitations that happened in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu (formerly Madras State and part of Madras Presidency) during both pre- and post-Independence periods. The agitations involved several mass protests, riots, student and political movements in Tamil Nadu, and concerned the official status of Hindi in the state and in the Indian Republic. The first anti-Hindi agitation was launched in 1937, in opposition to the introduction of compulsory teaching of Hindi in the schools of Madras Presidency by the first Indian National Congress government led by C. Rajagopalachari. The new Constitution came into effect on 26 January 1950. Efforts by the Indian Government to make Hindi as the official language after 1965 were not acceptable to many non-Hindi Indian states, who wanted the continued use of English. The Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), a descendant of Dravidar Kazhagam, led the opposition to Hindi. To relieve their fears, Prim e Minister Jawaharlal Nehru enacted the Official Languages Act in 1963 to ensure the continuing use of English beyond 1965.  [13]   On 25 January, a full-scale riot broke out in the southern city of Madurai, sparked off by a minor altercation between agitating students and Congress party members. To calm the situation, Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri gave assurances that English would continue to be used as the official language as long the non-Hindi speaking states wanted. The riots subsided after Shastris assurance, as did the student agitation.  [14]   The Official Languages Act was eventually amended in 1967 by the Congress Government headed by Indira Gandhi to guarantee the indefinite use of Hindi and English as official languages. This effectively ensured the current virtual indefinite policy of bilingualism of the Indian Republic. There were also two similar (but smaller) agitations in 1968 and 1986 which had varying degrees of success.  [15]   The Konkani language agitations were a series of agitations that happened in the Indian state of Goa (formerly the union territory of Goa, Daman and Diu) during the post-Independence period. The agitations involved several mass protests, riots, student and political movements in Goa, and concerned the official status of Konkani in the state and in the Indian Republic.  [16]   The Kosli language movement has been campaigning for recognition for the Kosli language. This movement is going on from last five decades in the districts of Western Orissa or Kosal. Persons like Kosal ratna late Prayag Dutta Joshi, Dr. Nilamadhab Panigrahi and others have started this movement.. Kosli language is considered as a dialect of Oriya language. In the Census of India- 2001, Kosli language is shown as a mother tongue grouped under Oriya language. There are several Radio and T.V. programs in Kosli language. The main objective of this movement is to include the Kosli language in the 8th schedule of the Indian constitution.  [17]   The Rajasthani language movement has been campaigning for greater recognition for the Rajasthani language since 1947. Rajasthani is still officially considered a dialect of Hindi. However, the Sahitya Akademi considers it a distinct language.  [18]   The Punjabi Suba movement aimed at creation of a Punjabi-majority subah (province) in the Punjab region of India in the 1950s. Led by the Akali Dal, it resulted in the formation of the Punjabi-majority Punjab state, the Hindi-majority Haryana state and the Union Territory of Chandigarh. Some Pahari majority parts of the East Punjab were also merged with Himachal Pradesh as a result of the movement.  [19]   In Maharashtra language conflict has taken a violent turn and Marathi is now being used as the instrument to drive out all non-Marathi speakers. In the nineteen sixties, a new political party called the Shiv Sena became a force to reckon with because it promoted the concept of Maharashtra for Marathi speakers only, the implication being that jobs in the state and especially in Bombay, should go to Marathi speakers and nobody else. Over the years the Shiv Sena has embraced different platforms including a fundamentalist Hindu stance. But two years ago the Sena split and the breakaway group, the Maharashtra Navnirman Sena has gone back to the original agenda of the Shiv Sena.  [20]   Mahatma Gandhi wrote, Hindustani, i.e., a blend of Hindi and Urdu, should be accepted as the national language for future use. So, the future members of the councils will take a pledge that till the use of English is stopped in correspondence, etc., at the national level, Hindustani should be used in the Imperial Council and regional languages should be used in the Provincial Councils. They should resolve that Hindustani would be implemented as the compulsory co-language in middle schools with freedom to choose either the Devanagari or the Urdu script. English language will be accepted in the field of administrative matters, diplomacy, and international trade.  [21]   Pierre Bourdieu assumes that the symbolic domination of one or a set of languages is directly a result of market-governed instrumental rationality.  [22]  The issues related to linguistic ideology with the structure of social stratification and division of classes in a speech community. According to N. Dorian, a noted scholar on language, most people feel a degree of attachment to their ancestral language. If conditions are reasonably, people identify with their own language and do not seek a preferable substitute. In case in which people have changed to another language and given up their own entirely, it has nearly always been due to a local history of political suppression, social discrimination, or economic deprivation.  [23]   Other factors that threaten the survival of a language include the small size of a language group, extinction of sizeable members of the community on account of wars, ethnic conflicts, displacement, and epidemics or due to migration necessitated by economic or social factors. Crystal has suggested several steps the linguistic minority community could adopt to protect languages from extinction. These include increasing the prestige of the minority language within the dominant community, improving their economic status, power and authority, reducing the language to writing, and strong presence in the educational system.  [24]   India alone is home to about 380 languages. Northeast India is home to about 240 languages and dialects. There is also the hegemony and the dominance of the stronger groups over the weaker ones. In northeast India there are several factors that threaten language survival. These include geographical isolation of ethnic groups, migration of youth to towns and cities for education and work, ethnic conflicts and displacements. There is the absence of adequate policies to promote mother tongue education at primary school level. Often the members of the community themselves are not conscious of the danger of their language becoming extinct. According to Riley, the survival of a minority language is closely bound up with the affirmation and preservation of a distinct ethnic identity and culture.  [25]   The plight of minority languages in the world is very precarious as most of them are facing extinction. Scholars speak of language murder, language death and linguistic genocide to refer to the phenomenon of extinction of minority languages.  [26]  The most important direct agents in language murder are the media and the educational system. Behind them are the real culprits the global economics, military and political systems. Children are taught through the medium of dominant languages often forcing them to use only the dominant languages.  [27]   Children from minority language communities often attend classes taught in national or regional language that they do not understand. Many of them find it difficult to learn to read or master other academic skills, forcing them to drop out of school before completing primary school. Being poverty stricken and lower caste, most adivasis cannot afford an education in any of official languages because it is expensive. Their exclusion from mainstream languages incapacitates them from representing their interests to government officials and bargaining for the funds set aside for their welfare. One cannot ignore the fact that linguistic aspiration and ethnic identity continue to be underlying factors in some of the present day conflicts and tension as well. India beautifully combines a rich diversity of languages. Instead of seeing language plurality as a problem, we ought to see it as a resource. Our rich cultural and environmental resources and our varied tongues can be the best gifts that we can hand over to posterity. In colonial times, the British played havoc with us with their divide and rule politics. But its sixty-one years since we won independence. Do we really want to divide and tear the subcontinent apart in the name of language? Most other countries have a single language. How fortunate we in India are to have this treasure-trove of twenty-two major languages, not to mention hundreds of dialects. The further subordination any regional, and tribal languages creates a hierarchy, which becomes a site for the struggle for dominance and control of resources and pow er in India.

Analyse of the Wind That Shakes the Barley

The Wind That Shakes the Barley The wind that shakes the barley is a film made of Ken Loach, the film are made in 2006 Setting: â€Å"The wind that shakes the barley† takes place in Ireland, during the Irish War of Independence (1919-1921) and the Irish Civil War (1922-1923) and it is a real story. After World war 1. Put a stopper for the home rule bill in Ireland there came English soldiers into Ireland and treated the Irish people really bad. Then some of the Irish people got upset and began to fight back. Resume:The film takes place in the Northern Ireland in the twenties, during IRA's fight against the British invasion of Ireland. The brothers Damien and Teddy O’Donovan join a rebel movement with some friends, after Damien’s failed attempt to escape to London to become a doctor, and after British soldiers killed a very good friend of his. The group is the start of the Irish peoples rise against the British invasion, and many people starts joining groups just like theirs. They get caught by the British, and Teddy gets tortured by pulling out his nails, to make him say names, but he doesn't reveal his secrets to anyone.Afterwards they fetch Damien in. The â€Å"boss† threatens to kill Damien if he does not tell him about who helps them, but Damien is silent and gets thrown back into the cell. The young soldier who were supposed to shoot Damien helps them escape, but since he has no key to the last cell, three of the captives get left behind. The others escape in a horse drawn carriage and stay in a small house while Teddy recovers. When Teddy is ready to travel again, they go to some reliable friends to live for a while.Here they find out that one of Damien’s oldest friends Chris Reilly, a young guy who worked on a British farm to earn money to his family, was the one telling on them, and got them sent to jail. They receive orders to kill both Chris and Sir John, and Damien shoots them. Later he talks to his sweetheart, Sine ad ni Shuilleabhain, about the shame in facing Chris' mother. After IRA's defeat on a British convoy, another detachment sets fire to Sinead's house as payback, and shaves her head while pointing a gun at her. Damien and the others see it all from behind a hill, but there are nothing they can do about it.The British are too many. When the British leave, Sinead is still deeply in shock, and while Damien comforts her, a messenger arrives with the message of a formal ceasefire between Britain and the IRA. The whole village celebrates, but not for long, because they find out about the Anglo-Irish treaty, and the IRA divides in two groups. Teddy is done fighting and accepts the treaty. He and his allies start patrolling in Irish Army-uniforms. Damien and his friends will not accept the treaty and joins the Anti-treaty IRA.Damien gets caught and his Anti-treaty friend Dan was killed in their attempt of stealing weapons from the British army. Characters Damien is a newly graduated doctor f rom college. You can see he is a recent graduate because in the film he is relatively young, and refers to himself as: Medical graduate from college. His brother named Teddy. Individually, they represent a position in relation to how Ireland should be free – Damien will fight through political means, and Teddy will struggle with violence. Which is typical in societies with war, there will always be different opinions on how to solve the conflict.

Medical Marijuana Essay

Marijuana is a very prominent and controversial issue in society today. Although many slanderous claims have been made about cannabis in recent history, the truths are slowly starting to resurface. Unfortunately, these truths are under heavy criticism due to the stereotypical view of what people view as the typical â€Å"pot smoker.† This skewed perception of a lazy and unmotivated American is the result of over seventy years of propaganda and misinformation spread by private interests who relied on illegal cannabis illegal from their own personal gains. As a marijuana consumer and a current medical marijuana patient, I strongly believe that marijuana should be legalized for all users. Currently in the United States today, marijuana is prohibited by federal law and has been a topic of controversial debate since the start of the prohibition. There are several, important reasons for the legalization of marijuana, including research concerning these issues are beneficial in understanding both sides of the debate. The result of abolishing our country’s marijuana prohibition by supporting legalization will stimulate the economy, to show the medical properties, and lower the crime rate. The legalization of marijuana has both positive and negative outcomes; although, the benefits of legalization outweigh the risks of the negative impacts. Marijuana is a natural plant with psycho-active properties that is commonly used by Americans as a recreational drug. Additionally, marijuana has been used for medical purpose for thousands of years. Records show that â€Å"A native of central Asia, cannabis may have been cultivated as much as ten thousand years go. It was certainly cultivated in China by 4000 B.C. and Turkestan by 3000 B.C.† (Grinspoon 3). Furthermore, from 1900 to 1940, marijuana, including opium and cocaine were considered part of everyday drugs. As time went on, the U.S. cracked down on crack and opium, eventually outlawing them, nut continued to be very â€Å"loose† with the use of marijuana. Eventually, as time continued to roll on, the use of marijuana became â€Å"frowned upon.†For instance, marijuana was made illegal and the U.S. govern ment became very strict with cannabis laws. This began around the 80’s and then started to become increasingly worse. Then, around the late 90’s and early 2000’s, scientific studies started to produce jaw-dropping results. Scientists started to discover that marijuana can significantly help people that have become ill. Medical marijuana has been tested to help people with cataracts, cancer and severe depression just to name a few (Zeese). States wanted to only make medical marijuana legal so it may help sick people, but the government did not want any form of marijuana legal. The law that was known throughout the United States was any form of marijuana was illegal. But now with this new discovery, doctors in states across the country wanted legalization of marijuana. The first state to allow the use of medical marijuana was California in 1996 (Zeese). The only distribution of medical; marijuana though is through the recommendation of a certified doctor. Other states began to follow in the footsteps of California such as Arizona and Colorado. One thing led to the next and now there is up to fourteen states that have legalized the distribution of marijuana medically, with many more to come. These states allowed the use of medical marijuana to help people with anxiety and certain types of cancer. But the U.S. federal government has tried to prevent patients from obtaining cannabis and threatened physicians who prescribe it with criminal prosecution or loss of their license to practice medicine. But yet, the growing support for medical marijuana has grown massively in numbers over the past twenty years. Furthermore, the United States has worked its economy into a financial crisis over the years and needs to start coming up with some plans to balance out the debt. The citizens of the United States are almost equally divided on the decision of legalization, but when examining the facts, there are many outstanding benefits that would arise as a direct result of legalization. A benefit of legalizing marijuana includes providing the government with leverage to this problem. Marijuana is currently against federal laws yet medical marijuana complies with several state laws. Every year, the government is obligated to spend money directly related to the cost of enforcing marijuana laws. Marijuana is a cash crop and can be used for clothes, paper, medical substances, along with many other uses. The legalization of marijuana would provide the government and our country with control over a huge cash crop that can be easily cultivated to our climate. In addition to exporting hemp and marijuana to accumulate more funds, the government would be able to tax the plant very similarly to alcohol or tobacco. If this were the case, it is estimated ‘according to the calculations here, legalization would reduce government expenditure by $5.3 billion at the state and local level and by $2.4 billion at the federal level.† (Miron18). These figures generated in the article the Budgetary Implications of Marijuana Prohibition reinforce that the calculated values of getting rid of the expenditure caused by marijuana offenders along with the taxation of the substance would be a substantial revision to our economy. Moreover, using marijuana for medicinal purpose is not a recent discovery. In fact, written references to use medical marijuana date back nearly 5,000 years. Western medicine embraced marijuana’s medical properties in the mid-1800s, and by the beginning of the 20th century, physicians had published more than 100 papers in the Western medical literature recommending its wide for a variety of disorders. These disorders include pain relief, nausea, glaucoma, and movement disorders. It is also used as a powerful appetite stimulant which helps patients that had HIV/AIDS or cancer patients going through chemotherapy. Today, thousands of patients â€Å"like me â€Å"are able to use marijuana as an effective method of treatment for their ailments. This is possible because fourteen state governments across the country have acknowledged cannabis’ effective healing properties and legalized its consumption for medicinal purposes with the consent of a licensed physician. However, these patients are at the mercy of the federal government. On the other hand, opponents of medical marijuana or just marijuana itself have given many reasons for why it should not be legalized. One of the main reasons they argue is that Marijuana smoke contains known carcinogens and produces dependency in users. In many studies, it has shown that it does have some harm, such as the harms associated with smoking. But the National Academy of Science affirmed that â€Å"marijuana’s short term medical benefits outweigh any smoking-related harm for some patients. Though marijuana has been proven to be damaging to the lungs more than tobacco a study in 2006 found no evidence that marijuana smokers had higher rates of lung cancer. The FDA has tested the effectiveness of marijuana and has found that the cannabinoids are helpful in treating pain associated with chemotherapy, postoperative recovery, and spinal cord injury, as well as neuropathic pain, which is often experienced by patients with metastatic cancer, multiple sclerosis, and diabetes. There is also no evidence shown that patients who use marijuana become addicted. Through the opposing side argues this, they show no evidence in supporting this claim, which therefore, the claim is invalid. There are many pharmaceutical drugs used for treatment and they are addictive, yet it’s legal. Also carcinogens can have a negative effect, but there are many things in society, such as tobacco, that contains harmful toxins, yet it’s still legal. To say marijuana should remain illegal because it is addictive, is irrelevant because these items are still present in society today and are harmful to the human body, but still they remain legal. In addition, a huge controversial subject on marijuana legalization movement is the topic of criminal activity as a result of the plant’s legalization. Oppositionists in favor of keeping marijuana illegal argue that crime rates will spike to unheard of levels if marijuana is legalized. Advocates believe that the result of legalizing marijuana will result in the opposite. The legalization of marijuana will result in the opposite. The legalization of marijuana would create adverse effects on criminal activity levels. For example, the level of criminal offenders on marijuana will drop to zero. This would directly result on lower levels of crime as a whole due to the no longer existing costs associated with decriminalization. The end result of this would be no longer filling prisons and jails with marijuana offenders. Another key issue on this point is whether or not organizations involved in cultivating, selling, or smuggling will strengthen to overcome the government control on marijuana. This is a hypothetical situation which more realistically would result in drug organizations holding power of more serious drugs such as cocaine, methamphetamines, or heroin. Drug trafficking organization control most of the power associated with these drugs already. The governmental control of marijuana would not strengthen drug organizations or gangs as no one would be able to compete against them. Authors from the Elliot school of International Affairs/Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission states that â€Å"a retail markup between 20% and 50%, and state-level tax of 25$ per ounce, the price of legalized marijuana in California would likely be between $60 and $75 per ounce†¦ legal marijuana regulated by the government would be roughly the same price as its Mexican competitor and between 23.6 times as potent† (Miron 28). The advantage would be largely held by the government if it was made readily available for public consumer use due to the convenience, price, and quality of the marijuana. In conclusion, the United States as a whole is in need of new more effective policies to stimulate more economic growth, provide more advanced healthcare, and lower the nation’s criminal activity rate. As it stands today, marijuana is against the law and counteracts the advancement and prosperity of the United States. Through the research has been shown that marijuana has a large potential to become a solution and wiser decision to thee ongoing issues. Some of the top issues in the debates when arguing either side of marijuana prohibition and legalization were analyzed to effectively prove the benefits of legalization over prohibition. The legalization of marijuana has been analyzed to be effective addition to the federals laws set by the United States. Many of the different reasons that the opposing side has given are irrelevant and can be easily proven by the evidence given by the proponents. The DEA has let millions of patients suffer miserably for many years because they refuse to give them the proper care. Research has already proven that it has medicinal values and it shouldn’t be withheld from the patients any longer than it already has.

The Impact Of Food Companies On The Food Industry

Throughout the years, there has been an incredible amount of speculation as to what ingredients are being put into the food we consume. The same food manufactured by major food corporations that can only be approved by the FDA. There are many techniques that these food corporations can use in order to gain consumer loyalty, but the main focus is the way their advertising works. Along with these advertisements, comes a target market as well. The food industry is constantly in speculation because there are always new foods that corporations want approved to sell. Some of these businesses are part of the fast food industry and others are international food companies that sell their products around the world. As adults and parents, we need to†¦show more content†¦You then asked your parent to log on to the internet with you and enter the code to see if you would win the grand prize. This prize always consisted of something outrageous like a trip to Orlando, Florida to attend an exotic amusement park. This was a ploy by the company to get kids to want their parents to get them the soup from the grocery store for a chance to win. Therefore, sales for the company would rise. â€Å"Research shows that this brand loyalty begins in children as young as two years old.† (mediaawareness) The reason this can be dangerous is because of the types of food our children eat. Foods like packaged cookies, salty soups, candy, and soda. The list runs much longer than this, but the reality is that these foods have things like added sugar, added salt, and trans fats that make the food taste â€Å"better†. Another really important fact to point out is that childhood obesity can be directly related to over consumption of fast foods. The average fast food cheeseburger contains about 500 calories. If you add an order of french fries then that is another 500 calories. Most active 5 year old children for example, should obtain about 1600 calories per day. So one meal from a fast food restaurant would equate to over half of the calories they should. (NCBI) Obesity can cause other health problems to occur. There is a direct like between obesity and type 2 diabetes. It also put you at higher risk of developing certain types of cancer and other illnesses